A measurement of the degree to which a firm or project incurs a combination of fixed and variable costs.
1. A business that makes few sales, with each sale providing a very high gross margin, is said to be highly leveraged. A business that makes many sales, with each sale contributing a very slight margin, is said to be less leveraged. As the volume of sales in a business increases, each new sale contributes less to fixed costs and more to profitability.
2. A business that has a higher proportion of fixed costs and a lower proportion of variable costs is said to have used more operating leverage. Those businesses with lower fixed costs and higher variable costs are said to employ less operating leverage.
The higher the degree of operating leverage, the greater the potential danger from forecasting risk. That is, if a relatively small error is made in forecasting sales, it can be magnified into large errors in cash flow projections. The opposite is true for businesses that are less leveraged. A business that sells millions of products a year, with each contributing slightly to paying for fixed costs, is not as dependent on each individual sale.
Degree Of Operating Leverage - DOL
A type of leverage ratio summarizing the effect a particular amount of operating leverage has on a company's earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT). Operating leverage involves using a large proportion of fixed costs to variable costs in the operations of the firm. The higher the degree of operating leverage, the more volatile the EBIT figure will be relative to a given change in sales, all other things remaining the same. The formula is as follows:
This ratio is useful as it helps the user in determining the effects that a given level of operating leverage has on the earnings potential of the firm. This ratio can also be used to help the firm determine the most appropriate level of operating leverage in order to maximize the company's EBIT.
Tuesday, October 21, 2008
Leverage
The use of various financial instruments or borrowed capital, such as margin, to increase the potential return of an investment.
The amount of debt used to finance a firm's assets. A firm with significantly more debt than equity is considered to be highly leveraged.
1. Leverage can be created through options, futures, margin and other financial instruments. For example, say you have $1,000 to invest. This amount could be invested in 10 shares of Microsoft stock, but to increase leverage, you could invest the $1,000 in five options contracts. You would then control 500 shares instead of just 10.
2. Most companies use debt to finance operations. By doing so, a company increases its leverage because it can invest in business operations without increasing its equity. For example, if a company formed with an investment of $5 million from investors, the equity in the company is $5 million - this is the money the company uses to operate. If the company uses debt financing by borrowing $20 million, the company now has $25 million to invest in business operations and more opportunity to increase value for shareholders.
Leverage helps both the investor and the firm to invest or operate. However, it comes with greater risk. If an investor uses leverage to make an investment and the investment moves against the investor, his or her loss is much greater than it would've been if the investment had not been leveraged - leverage magnifies both gains and losses. In the business world, a company can use leverage to try to generate shareholder wealth, but if it fails to do so, the interest expense and credit risk of default destroys shareholder value.
The amount of debt used to finance a firm's assets. A firm with significantly more debt than equity is considered to be highly leveraged.
1. Leverage can be created through options, futures, margin and other financial instruments. For example, say you have $1,000 to invest. This amount could be invested in 10 shares of Microsoft stock, but to increase leverage, you could invest the $1,000 in five options contracts. You would then control 500 shares instead of just 10.
2. Most companies use debt to finance operations. By doing so, a company increases its leverage because it can invest in business operations without increasing its equity. For example, if a company formed with an investment of $5 million from investors, the equity in the company is $5 million - this is the money the company uses to operate. If the company uses debt financing by borrowing $20 million, the company now has $25 million to invest in business operations and more opportunity to increase value for shareholders.
Leverage helps both the investor and the firm to invest or operate. However, it comes with greater risk. If an investor uses leverage to make an investment and the investment moves against the investor, his or her loss is much greater than it would've been if the investment had not been leveraged - leverage magnifies both gains and losses. In the business world, a company can use leverage to try to generate shareholder wealth, but if it fails to do so, the interest expense and credit risk of default destroys shareholder value.
Thursday, September 4, 2008
Postnuptial Agreement
Postnuptial Agreement
A contract created by spouses after entering into marriage that outlines the ownership of financial assets in the event of a divorce. The contract can also set out the responsibilities surrounding any children or other obligations for the duration of the marriage.
Also known as a "post-marital agreement" or "postnup".
Similar to a prenuptial agreement, postnuptial agreements allow a couple to alleviate tension caused by financial concerns. Entering into this style of contract will allow spouses to establish an equitable distribution of assets if the marriage dissolves.
Martial agreements, including postnuptial ones, are often considered taboo. Critics argue such contracts indicate the couple expects the marriage to fail. However, if a contract can remedy financial discomfort, the couple could choose to enter into an agreement in hopes of keeping marital harmony.
(Source: Investopedia)
A contract created by spouses after entering into marriage that outlines the ownership of financial assets in the event of a divorce. The contract can also set out the responsibilities surrounding any children or other obligations for the duration of the marriage.
Also known as a "post-marital agreement" or "postnup".
Similar to a prenuptial agreement, postnuptial agreements allow a couple to alleviate tension caused by financial concerns. Entering into this style of contract will allow spouses to establish an equitable distribution of assets if the marriage dissolves.
Martial agreements, including postnuptial ones, are often considered taboo. Critics argue such contracts indicate the couple expects the marriage to fail. However, if a contract can remedy financial discomfort, the couple could choose to enter into an agreement in hopes of keeping marital harmony.
(Source: Investopedia)
Monday, June 23, 2008
Friday, May 30, 2008
Mutual Funds vs Hedge Funds
Mutual Funds
Mutual Firms are essentially a professionally managed investment company that collects from many investors and firms to invest these in bonds, securities, asset classes, stocks, commodities or short-term money instruments.
These mutual funds serve a purpose of collecting a large amount of capital from an unlimited number of individual investors. As additional money flows in, the fund manager purchases financial instruments in careful ratios or proportions according to his/his company's strategy. The main job of the fund manager is to trade the securities of his fund, while realizing any gain or loss, and pass the same to the investors.
Hedge Funds
A hedge fund is an investment company that accepts investment, not from everyone, but only from a small number of wealthy individuals, families or big institutions. In US, a hedge fund is open to accredited investors, who are people with a salary above $200,000 annually or have at least $1 million in assets. This is done usually to undertake more complex and riskier investments than what a mutual or public fund may undertake.
Advantages of the Hedge Fund:
Able to employ extremely aggressive investment strategies(such as using borrowed money to increase invested money or to buy more assets with someone else's money-called leverage buying)Can put 'all eggs in one basket' and use no diversification thus very complex and risky investments made which will give either huge losses or sky-high profits.
The Fund Manager is motivated to outperform everyone and earn the highest return, for he has a share in the profits of the hedge fund. However, he does not have a share in the losses. Can short sell or take on risky, unhedged positions to earn large profits. If the market turns against them, losses mean closure of the fund.
Facts:
Currently, the worldwide value of all mutual funds total to more than $26 trillion. Hedge funds, still growing, and open to a select few, have assets worth much less.
In 2006, the hedge fund advisory group Hennessee, estimated the total assets to be $1.442 trillion. In 2007, Hedgefund.net concluded that total assets under hedge funds amounted to $2.68 trillion in 2007 (3rd quarter). Hedge funds have not quite taken off in India.
The most famous mutual fund manager remains Peter Lynch, while George Soros and John Paulson are the highest paid hedge fund managers at $2.9 billion and $3 billion respectively. However, Warren Buffet, chairman of Berkshire Hathaway Inc., is neither a mutual fund manager nor a hedge fund manager. He is just the owner of the world's largest investment company, listed on the stock exchange.
Mutual Firms are essentially a professionally managed investment company that collects from many investors and firms to invest these in bonds, securities, asset classes, stocks, commodities or short-term money instruments.
These mutual funds serve a purpose of collecting a large amount of capital from an unlimited number of individual investors. As additional money flows in, the fund manager purchases financial instruments in careful ratios or proportions according to his/his company's strategy. The main job of the fund manager is to trade the securities of his fund, while realizing any gain or loss, and pass the same to the investors.
Hedge Funds
A hedge fund is an investment company that accepts investment, not from everyone, but only from a small number of wealthy individuals, families or big institutions. In US, a hedge fund is open to accredited investors, who are people with a salary above $200,000 annually or have at least $1 million in assets. This is done usually to undertake more complex and riskier investments than what a mutual or public fund may undertake.
Advantages of the Hedge Fund:
Able to employ extremely aggressive investment strategies(such as using borrowed money to increase invested money or to buy more assets with someone else's money-called leverage buying)Can put 'all eggs in one basket' and use no diversification thus very complex and risky investments made which will give either huge losses or sky-high profits.
The Fund Manager is motivated to outperform everyone and earn the highest return, for he has a share in the profits of the hedge fund. However, he does not have a share in the losses. Can short sell or take on risky, unhedged positions to earn large profits. If the market turns against them, losses mean closure of the fund.
Facts:
Currently, the worldwide value of all mutual funds total to more than $26 trillion. Hedge funds, still growing, and open to a select few, have assets worth much less.
In 2006, the hedge fund advisory group Hennessee, estimated the total assets to be $1.442 trillion. In 2007, Hedgefund.net concluded that total assets under hedge funds amounted to $2.68 trillion in 2007 (3rd quarter). Hedge funds have not quite taken off in India.
The most famous mutual fund manager remains Peter Lynch, while George Soros and John Paulson are the highest paid hedge fund managers at $2.9 billion and $3 billion respectively. However, Warren Buffet, chairman of Berkshire Hathaway Inc., is neither a mutual fund manager nor a hedge fund manager. He is just the owner of the world's largest investment company, listed on the stock exchange.
Thursday, May 29, 2008
Thursday, January 31, 2008
Subprime Credit Card
Subprime Credit Card
------------------------------------------------------------
A type of credit card issued to people with substandard credit
scores or limited credit histories. These cards will typically
carry much higher interest rates than credit cards granted to
prime borrowers; they also come with extra fees and lower
credit limits.
Subprime credit cards are issued by both major issuers and
smaller financial institutions that focus only on subprime
lending.
The subprime credit card industry has seen some controversy
as accusations of predatory lending practices have been
documented. Predatory lending can lead to a borrower not
knowing the full extent of the fees they are paying; some
subprime cards carry covenants that can cause the interest
rate to spike if a payment is late or the card holder exceeds
his or her limit.
Interest rates on subprime credit cards can run as high as
30% and should be used with great caution by individuals
seeking a source of credit.
(Investopedia)
------------------------------------------------------------
A type of credit card issued to people with substandard credit
scores or limited credit histories. These cards will typically
carry much higher interest rates than credit cards granted to
prime borrowers; they also come with extra fees and lower
credit limits.
Subprime credit cards are issued by both major issuers and
smaller financial institutions that focus only on subprime
lending.
The subprime credit card industry has seen some controversy
as accusations of predatory lending practices have been
documented. Predatory lending can lead to a borrower not
knowing the full extent of the fees they are paying; some
subprime cards carry covenants that can cause the interest
rate to spike if a payment is late or the card holder exceeds
his or her limit.
Interest rates on subprime credit cards can run as high as
30% and should be used with great caution by individuals
seeking a source of credit.
(Investopedia)
Sunday, January 20, 2008
P-Notes
P-Notes
Participatory Notes -- or P-Notes or PNs -- are instruments issued by registered foreign institutional investors to overseas investors, who wish to invest in the Indian stock markets without registering themselves with the market regulator, the Securities and Exchange Board of India.
Financial instruments used by hedge funds that are not registered with Sebi to invest in Indian securities. Indian-based brokerages to buy India-based securities / stocks and then issue participatory notes to foreign investors. Any dividends or capital gains collected from the underlying securities go back to the investors.
Why P-Notes?
Since international access to the Indian capital market is limited to FIIs. The market has found a way to circumvent this by creating the device called participatory notes, which are said to account for half the $80 billion that stands to the credit of FIIs. Investing through P-Notes is very simple and hence very popular.
What are hedge funds?
Hedge funds, which invest through participatory notes, borrow money cheaply from Western markets and invest these funds into stocks in emerging markets. This gives them double benefit: a chance to make a killing in a stock market where stocks are on the rise; and a chance to make the most of the rising value of the local currency.
Who gets P-Notes?
P-Notes are issued to the real investors on the basis of stocks purchased by the FII. The registered FII looks after all the transactions, which appear as proprietary trades in its books. It is not obligatory for the FIIs to disclose their client details to the Sebi, unless asked specifically.
What is an FII?
An FII, or a foreign institutional investor, is an entity established to make investments in India.
However, these FIIs need to get registered with the Securities and Exchange Board of India. Entities or funds that are eligible to get registered as FII include pension funds; mutual funds; insurance companies / reinsurance companies; investment trusts; banks; international or multilateral organisation or an agency thereof or a foreign government agency or a foreign central bank; university funds; endowments (serving broader social objectives); foundations (serving broader social objectives); and charitable trusts / charitable societies.
The following entities proposing to invest on behalf of broad based funds, are also eligible to be registered as FIIs:
Asset Management Companies
Investment Manager/Advisor
Institutional Portfolio Managers
Trustees
How does Sebi regulate FIIs?
FIIs who issue/renew/cancel/redeem P-Notes, are required to report on a monthly basis. The report should reach the Sebi by the 7th day of the following month.
The FII merely investing/subscribing in/to the Participatory Notes -- or any such type of instruments/securities -- with underlying Indian market securities are required to report on quarterly basis (Jan-Mar, Apr-Jun, Jul-Sep and Oct-Dec).
FIIs who do not issue PNs but have trades/holds Indian securities during the reporting quarter (Jan-Mar, Apr-Jun, Jul-Sep and Oct-Dec) require to submit 'Nil' undertaking on a quarterly basis.
FIIs who do not issue PNs and do not have trades/ holdings in Indian securities during the reporting quarter. (Jan-Mar, Apr-Jun, Jul-Sep and Oct-Dec): No reports required for that reporting quarter.
Who can invest in P-Notes?
a) Any entity incorporated in a jurisdiction that requires filing of constitutional and/or other documents with a registrar of companies or comparable regulatory agency or body under the applicable companies legislation in that jurisdiction;
b) Any entity that is regulated, authorised or supervised by a central bank, such as the Bank of England, the Federal Reserve, the Hong Kong Monetary Authority, the Monetary Authority of Singapore or any other similar body provided that the entity must not only be authorised but also be regulated by the aforesaid regulatory bodies;
c) Any entity that is regulated, authorised or supervised by a securities or futures commission, such as the Financial Services Authority (UK), the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Commodities Futures Trading Commission, the Securities and Futures Commission (Hong Kong or Taiwan), Australian Securities and Investments Commission (Australia) or other securities or futures authority or commission in any country , state or territory;
d) Any entity that is a member of securities or futures exchanges such as the New York Stock Exchange (Sub-account), London Stock Exchange (UK), Tokyo Stock Exchange (Japan), NASD (Sub-account) or other similar self-regulatory securities or futures authority or commission within any country, state or territory provided that the aforesaid organizations which are in the nature of self regulatory organizations are ultimately accountable to the respective securities / financial market regulators.
e) Any individual or entity (such as fund, trust, collective investment scheme, Investment Company or limited partnership) whose investment advisory function is managed by an entity satisfying the criteria of (a), (b), (c) or (d) above.
Sebi not happy
However, Indian regulators are not very happy about participatory notes because they have no way to know who owns the underlying securities. Regulators fear that hedge funds acting through participatory notes will cause economic volatility in India's exchanges.
Hedge funds were largely blamed for the sudden sharp falls in indices. Unlike FIIs, hedge funds are not directly registered with Sebi, but they can operate through sub-accounts with FIIs. These funds are also said to operate through the issuance of participatory notes.
30% FII money in stocks thru P-Notes
According to one estimate, more than 30 per cent of foreign institutional money coming into India is from hedge funds. This has led Sebi to keep a close watch on FII transactions, and especially hedge funds.
Hedge funds, which thrive on arbitrage opportunities, rarely hold a stock for a long time.
With a view to monitoring investments through participatory notes, Sebi had decided that FIIs must report details of these instruments along with the names of their holders.
Sebi Chairman M Damodaran has said that the proposals were against PNs but not against FIIs. The procedures for registering FIIs were in fact being simplified, he said.
Sebi has also proposed a ban on all PN issuances by sub-accounts of FIIs with immediate effect. They also will be required to wind up the current position over 18 months, during which period the capital markets regulator will review the position from time to time.
Sebi chairman M Damodaran, in a recent interview Business Standard, said that the amount of foreign investment coming in through participatory notes keeps changing and is somewhere between 25-30 per cent. "Recent indications are that it has gone up a little but again after the sub-prime crisis, there have been some exits. But it's a fairly significant percentage, it's not something you can ignore."
When asked if he was comfortable with almost one-fourth of the market being held by P-Notes, he said that he wasn't 'entirely uncomfortable.'
Participatory Notes -- or P-Notes or PNs -- are instruments issued by registered foreign institutional investors to overseas investors, who wish to invest in the Indian stock markets without registering themselves with the market regulator, the Securities and Exchange Board of India.
Financial instruments used by hedge funds that are not registered with Sebi to invest in Indian securities. Indian-based brokerages to buy India-based securities / stocks and then issue participatory notes to foreign investors. Any dividends or capital gains collected from the underlying securities go back to the investors.
Why P-Notes?
Since international access to the Indian capital market is limited to FIIs. The market has found a way to circumvent this by creating the device called participatory notes, which are said to account for half the $80 billion that stands to the credit of FIIs. Investing through P-Notes is very simple and hence very popular.
What are hedge funds?
Hedge funds, which invest through participatory notes, borrow money cheaply from Western markets and invest these funds into stocks in emerging markets. This gives them double benefit: a chance to make a killing in a stock market where stocks are on the rise; and a chance to make the most of the rising value of the local currency.
Who gets P-Notes?
P-Notes are issued to the real investors on the basis of stocks purchased by the FII. The registered FII looks after all the transactions, which appear as proprietary trades in its books. It is not obligatory for the FIIs to disclose their client details to the Sebi, unless asked specifically.
What is an FII?
An FII, or a foreign institutional investor, is an entity established to make investments in India.
However, these FIIs need to get registered with the Securities and Exchange Board of India. Entities or funds that are eligible to get registered as FII include pension funds; mutual funds; insurance companies / reinsurance companies; investment trusts; banks; international or multilateral organisation or an agency thereof or a foreign government agency or a foreign central bank; university funds; endowments (serving broader social objectives); foundations (serving broader social objectives); and charitable trusts / charitable societies.
The following entities proposing to invest on behalf of broad based funds, are also eligible to be registered as FIIs:
Asset Management Companies
Investment Manager/Advisor
Institutional Portfolio Managers
Trustees
How does Sebi regulate FIIs?
FIIs who issue/renew/cancel/redeem P-Notes, are required to report on a monthly basis. The report should reach the Sebi by the 7th day of the following month.
The FII merely investing/subscribing in/to the Participatory Notes -- or any such type of instruments/securities -- with underlying Indian market securities are required to report on quarterly basis (Jan-Mar, Apr-Jun, Jul-Sep and Oct-Dec).
FIIs who do not issue PNs but have trades/holds Indian securities during the reporting quarter (Jan-Mar, Apr-Jun, Jul-Sep and Oct-Dec) require to submit 'Nil' undertaking on a quarterly basis.
FIIs who do not issue PNs and do not have trades/ holdings in Indian securities during the reporting quarter. (Jan-Mar, Apr-Jun, Jul-Sep and Oct-Dec): No reports required for that reporting quarter.
Who can invest in P-Notes?
a) Any entity incorporated in a jurisdiction that requires filing of constitutional and/or other documents with a registrar of companies or comparable regulatory agency or body under the applicable companies legislation in that jurisdiction;
b) Any entity that is regulated, authorised or supervised by a central bank, such as the Bank of England, the Federal Reserve, the Hong Kong Monetary Authority, the Monetary Authority of Singapore or any other similar body provided that the entity must not only be authorised but also be regulated by the aforesaid regulatory bodies;
c) Any entity that is regulated, authorised or supervised by a securities or futures commission, such as the Financial Services Authority (UK), the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Commodities Futures Trading Commission, the Securities and Futures Commission (Hong Kong or Taiwan), Australian Securities and Investments Commission (Australia) or other securities or futures authority or commission in any country , state or territory;
d) Any entity that is a member of securities or futures exchanges such as the New York Stock Exchange (Sub-account), London Stock Exchange (UK), Tokyo Stock Exchange (Japan), NASD (Sub-account) or other similar self-regulatory securities or futures authority or commission within any country, state or territory provided that the aforesaid organizations which are in the nature of self regulatory organizations are ultimately accountable to the respective securities / financial market regulators.
e) Any individual or entity (such as fund, trust, collective investment scheme, Investment Company or limited partnership) whose investment advisory function is managed by an entity satisfying the criteria of (a), (b), (c) or (d) above.
Sebi not happy
However, Indian regulators are not very happy about participatory notes because they have no way to know who owns the underlying securities. Regulators fear that hedge funds acting through participatory notes will cause economic volatility in India's exchanges.
Hedge funds were largely blamed for the sudden sharp falls in indices. Unlike FIIs, hedge funds are not directly registered with Sebi, but they can operate through sub-accounts with FIIs. These funds are also said to operate through the issuance of participatory notes.
30% FII money in stocks thru P-Notes
According to one estimate, more than 30 per cent of foreign institutional money coming into India is from hedge funds. This has led Sebi to keep a close watch on FII transactions, and especially hedge funds.
Hedge funds, which thrive on arbitrage opportunities, rarely hold a stock for a long time.
With a view to monitoring investments through participatory notes, Sebi had decided that FIIs must report details of these instruments along with the names of their holders.
Sebi Chairman M Damodaran has said that the proposals were against PNs but not against FIIs. The procedures for registering FIIs were in fact being simplified, he said.
Sebi has also proposed a ban on all PN issuances by sub-accounts of FIIs with immediate effect. They also will be required to wind up the current position over 18 months, during which period the capital markets regulator will review the position from time to time.
Sebi chairman M Damodaran, in a recent interview Business Standard, said that the amount of foreign investment coming in through participatory notes keeps changing and is somewhere between 25-30 per cent. "Recent indications are that it has gone up a little but again after the sub-prime crisis, there have been some exits. But it's a fairly significant percentage, it's not something you can ignore."
When asked if he was comfortable with almost one-fourth of the market being held by P-Notes, he said that he wasn't 'entirely uncomfortable.'
Kostak rates
Kostak rates!!
Kostak rates refers to IPO and listing of stock in stock market
The investor who have been alloted the shares on IPO application sell their "lot of shares" in grey market before listing of the stock takes place in stock market.
Here investor having a motive to make quick gains fears that on stock listing prices of new issue would see a downfall. Where as there are other individuals you would like to purchase these shares from these investors but cant wait for stock listing as they have a opposite view.. they foresee that on listing stock would see upward moment or stock is a undervalued in its first offer price by the company...
Kostak rates refers to IPO and listing of stock in stock market
The investor who have been alloted the shares on IPO application sell their "lot of shares" in grey market before listing of the stock takes place in stock market.
Here investor having a motive to make quick gains fears that on stock listing prices of new issue would see a downfall. Where as there are other individuals you would like to purchase these shares from these investors but cant wait for stock listing as they have a opposite view.. they foresee that on listing stock would see upward moment or stock is a undervalued in its first offer price by the company...
Friday, January 11, 2008
Investment Banking: Job Options
Investment Banking: Job Options
Corporate Finance
In a corporate finance position you would work to help companies raise capital needed for new projects and ongoing operations. You would work to determine the amount and structure of fund needs of a client through equity, debt, convertibles, preferred, asset-backs, or derivative securities. As a starting analyst in corporate finance you would usually work on a client team and would have responsibilities to prepare registration statements, attend road shows where investors are sold on securities etc. Merrill Lynch, PaineWebber and Salomon/SmithBarney are acknowledged powers in corporate finance. Sometimes jobs in corporate finance are referred to as investment banking positions. When you hear phrases such as IBD or IBK people are referring to corporate finance.
Mergers and Acquisitions
Setting up deals where one company buys another is an important source of fee income for many investment banks. This has been a hot area on Wall Street in the 1990s and is likely to continue hopping through the next century. If you go to work in this area you would help out with a team which acts as an advisor to a client, values transactions, creatively structures deals and negotiates favorable terms. Worldwide, Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley/Dean Witter are the recognized leaders in M&A advisory. Investment banks have increasingly participated directly in LBOs, spinoffs and bridge loans, often by taking their own investment stake (known as merchant banking). Your duties could involve analyzing the appropriate form of participation. Expect to start running lots of valuation models on spreadsheets and gradually get more client focus as you progress.
Project Finance
The field of project finance is booming. Typically project finance involves funding infrastructure and oil capital projects off of a company or government's main balance sheet. Banks like CSFB and Deutsche Bank are active in this area. Project financed deals have been some of the first significant conduits of foreign capital into countries such as China, Yemen and Indonesia. When other sources of borrowing dry up, project finance is generally still there.
Trading
Some of the most desirable jobs in investment banking are in sales and trading. Your responsibilities would involve undertaking transactions in equities, bonds, currencies (referred to as Forex or FX), options or futures with traders at commercial banks, investment banks and large institutional investors. Trading can be tumultuous and requires a thorough knowledge of markets, financial instruments and an intuition for human psychology. Equities trading positions often involve "telling a story" to other traders about why they should purchase your stock. Fixed income trading positions call for strong analytical know-how and the wherewithal to manage large amounts of inventory in an often-thin market. Derivatives traders need very strong analytical know-how (perhaps even an engineering degree). Foreign exchange trading is based more on your instincts about markets, politics and macroeconomics. There are a variety of other types of trading jobs in agency securities, commercial paper, repos etc.
Structured Finance
Positions in structured finance involve the creation of financing vehicles to redirect cash flows to investors (known as asset-backed securities). Typical asset-backs securitize credit card receivables, auto loan receivables or mortgages. This market is red hot in 1998-9 and is likely to grow considerably into the future. Other growth areas include asset-backed commercial paper, collateralized bond obligations (CBOs), and repackaged asset vehicles. It would be beneficial to have a solid combination of spreadsheet, accounting and legal skills. Most students coming out of school know very little about this area; so you can get an edge by educating yourself by reading articles in the area from publications like Standard and Poors CreditWeek and picking up lingo like "early-am risk" from talking to market participants on informational interviews.
Derivatives
Derivatives derive their value from another primitive security. Options, swaps and futures are examples of derivatives. The market for derivatives is gigantic and subject to increasing scrutiny. The derivatives business is highly profitable and the demand on Wall Street for skilled derivatives practitioners has been very high. This market is likely to see further innovation in the forms which swaps take and in the area of exotic options. This will create further specialized job areas. If this area interests you, start studying math (especially stochastic differential equations and derivation of common models like Black-Scholes). Questions about models are likely to come up in interviews. Sales skills are also important in this area. Another related word you will hear is "structured notes." A structured note might be a foreign exchange loan, forward or futures contract with built in options structured to a client's need. So, for example, a client that will no longer be worried about their position once the Yen falls below 85 to the dollar could buy a "knock-out" option on a forward that will not be active once the yen/dollar rate falls below a floor. A related and popular area is credit derivatives which might involve selling an option which pays off when a defaults on one of its debt obligations.
Advisory
Advisory services are often provided by investment banks to public and private clients involved in M&A and financings. The area of risk management advisory has been popular at many investment banks. Often work will be done to determine a client's value, options for creating value or on a client's industry conditions.
Equity and Fixed Income Research
Security analysts are usually assigned to an industry or region. You could be responsible for making buy or sell recommendations to investors about a stock or bond. Your duties would involve visiting companies and heavy telephone contact with institutional investors. Investment banks often like to hire people with industry experience into analyst positions (as opposed to fresh MBAs or undergrads). For example, if you were a restaurant executive you could probably get hired as a restaurant industry analyst with a healthy pay raise. Knowing the business, being able to talk to clients well and having good forecasts are key in this position. You want to help your firm avoid the dreaded Worst Analysts list. Analysts are often referred to as either quants or fundamentalists. Fundamentalists make recommendations based on what's going on at a company--how's the CEO, what are the earnings etc? In contrast, quants look at computer programs that identify undervaluated securities, markets or even whole countries. There are fewer quant jobs, but they often pay more because the required skills are greater.
International Sales/Emerging Markets
A rapidly growing area is in international sales. Despite the Asia crisis, investor demand for securities issued in emerging markets is strong. Firms are meeting this demand by providing sales personnel and analysts specialized in these markets. Another area of high demand is in emerging markets such as Thailand or Mexico. Firms are looking for people with specific language skills, a willingness to travel and knowledge of these emerging markets. You can often rise very quickly in this area, even if you are quite young. With volatility in emerging market bonds in 1998, be sure to do your research carefully--the Russia crisis has triggered layoffs at a number of firms. A great place to track goings on is through Bloomberg's web site.
Public Finance
The market for municipal bonds is very large and calls for analysts, municipal advisors and traders. Positions in public finance are usually difficult to obtain but offer high rewards. Persons with previous experience in public administration would be attractive to investment banks in this capacity. A major growth area in municipals is in the project finance area. For example, Senior VP of public finance at Tucker Anthony, stated in August 1995 that his area has moved from 15% project finance before to 60% today (Bond Buyer, 8/15/95).
Retail Brokerage (Stockbroker)
Stockbrokers are in the business of selling stocks, bonds, insurance and other investments to individuals. Some brokers specialize in high net worth individuals while others span a variety of clients. This is a tough business to get started in (especially if you are much younger than your clients), but the rewards to a good people person with great sales skills are high. The Securities Industry Association reports that the average retail broker earned $128,553 in 1993. And many brokers earn upwards of $500,000. Try to start with a firm like Merrill Lynch that has a good training program. A good web page to look at if you are interested in being a broker is the Syndicate.
Institutional Sales
In institutional sales you would be responsible for conveying information about particular securities to institutional investors. You would be likely to have heavy contact with portfolio managers and your own firm's analysts and traders. Sales skills and product knowledge are crucial in this area as is the ability to get through to busy institutional investors. Working in sales for an investment bank (on the sell side) is often good preparation to move over to the buy side (insurance companies and mutual funds). Both types of jobs can be brutal and subject you to abuse. A common Wall Street Joke: What's the difference between a sell side and a buy side player? Answer: On the sell side they curse you only after they hang up the telephone. Taking abuse can be lucrative. The average salaries in institutional sales in 1995 exceeded $300,000 according to the Securities Industry Association.
Computer Guru
Some of the best jobs in computers and information systems are on Wall Street. A firm with good trading software, pricing software, or back office software can get a strong competitive advantage. In 1999 the big headhunters and firms on the Street have been scouring the country for people who can develop UNIX-based workstation software and financial mainframe applications. Six figure salaries are not uncommon for really good systems people.
Ratings Analyst:
One way to break into investment banking is to start as a ratings agency analyst. The pay is relatively low and advancement opportunities aren't great, and the investment banks know it and use the agencies as hunting grounds for new analysts. Moody's rates $5 trillion worth of securities and has 560 analysts. Standard and Poors rates $2 trillion worth of securities and has 800 analysts. These agencies are highly profitable and grade the credit quality of companies and sovereign entities accessing the markets. Most revenue comes from issuer fees. There is high demand for persons who can rate structured finance and corporate bonds intelligently. "We are not auditors and we don't use lie detectors, so it's up to our analysts to be smart enough to ask the right questions," says Edward Emmer, executive managing director and head of S&P's corporate ratings department.
Corporate Finance
In a corporate finance position you would work to help companies raise capital needed for new projects and ongoing operations. You would work to determine the amount and structure of fund needs of a client through equity, debt, convertibles, preferred, asset-backs, or derivative securities. As a starting analyst in corporate finance you would usually work on a client team and would have responsibilities to prepare registration statements, attend road shows where investors are sold on securities etc. Merrill Lynch, PaineWebber and Salomon/SmithBarney are acknowledged powers in corporate finance. Sometimes jobs in corporate finance are referred to as investment banking positions. When you hear phrases such as IBD or IBK people are referring to corporate finance.
Mergers and Acquisitions
Setting up deals where one company buys another is an important source of fee income for many investment banks. This has been a hot area on Wall Street in the 1990s and is likely to continue hopping through the next century. If you go to work in this area you would help out with a team which acts as an advisor to a client, values transactions, creatively structures deals and negotiates favorable terms. Worldwide, Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley/Dean Witter are the recognized leaders in M&A advisory. Investment banks have increasingly participated directly in LBOs, spinoffs and bridge loans, often by taking their own investment stake (known as merchant banking). Your duties could involve analyzing the appropriate form of participation. Expect to start running lots of valuation models on spreadsheets and gradually get more client focus as you progress.
Project Finance
The field of project finance is booming. Typically project finance involves funding infrastructure and oil capital projects off of a company or government's main balance sheet. Banks like CSFB and Deutsche Bank are active in this area. Project financed deals have been some of the first significant conduits of foreign capital into countries such as China, Yemen and Indonesia. When other sources of borrowing dry up, project finance is generally still there.
Trading
Some of the most desirable jobs in investment banking are in sales and trading. Your responsibilities would involve undertaking transactions in equities, bonds, currencies (referred to as Forex or FX), options or futures with traders at commercial banks, investment banks and large institutional investors. Trading can be tumultuous and requires a thorough knowledge of markets, financial instruments and an intuition for human psychology. Equities trading positions often involve "telling a story" to other traders about why they should purchase your stock. Fixed income trading positions call for strong analytical know-how and the wherewithal to manage large amounts of inventory in an often-thin market. Derivatives traders need very strong analytical know-how (perhaps even an engineering degree). Foreign exchange trading is based more on your instincts about markets, politics and macroeconomics. There are a variety of other types of trading jobs in agency securities, commercial paper, repos etc.
Structured Finance
Positions in structured finance involve the creation of financing vehicles to redirect cash flows to investors (known as asset-backed securities). Typical asset-backs securitize credit card receivables, auto loan receivables or mortgages. This market is red hot in 1998-9 and is likely to grow considerably into the future. Other growth areas include asset-backed commercial paper, collateralized bond obligations (CBOs), and repackaged asset vehicles. It would be beneficial to have a solid combination of spreadsheet, accounting and legal skills. Most students coming out of school know very little about this area; so you can get an edge by educating yourself by reading articles in the area from publications like Standard and Poors CreditWeek and picking up lingo like "early-am risk" from talking to market participants on informational interviews.
Derivatives
Derivatives derive their value from another primitive security. Options, swaps and futures are examples of derivatives. The market for derivatives is gigantic and subject to increasing scrutiny. The derivatives business is highly profitable and the demand on Wall Street for skilled derivatives practitioners has been very high. This market is likely to see further innovation in the forms which swaps take and in the area of exotic options. This will create further specialized job areas. If this area interests you, start studying math (especially stochastic differential equations and derivation of common models like Black-Scholes). Questions about models are likely to come up in interviews. Sales skills are also important in this area. Another related word you will hear is "structured notes." A structured note might be a foreign exchange loan, forward or futures contract with built in options structured to a client's need. So, for example, a client that will no longer be worried about their position once the Yen falls below 85 to the dollar could buy a "knock-out" option on a forward that will not be active once the yen/dollar rate falls below a floor. A related and popular area is credit derivatives which might involve selling an option which pays off when a defaults on one of its debt obligations.
Advisory
Advisory services are often provided by investment banks to public and private clients involved in M&A and financings. The area of risk management advisory has been popular at many investment banks. Often work will be done to determine a client's value, options for creating value or on a client's industry conditions.
Equity and Fixed Income Research
Security analysts are usually assigned to an industry or region. You could be responsible for making buy or sell recommendations to investors about a stock or bond. Your duties would involve visiting companies and heavy telephone contact with institutional investors. Investment banks often like to hire people with industry experience into analyst positions (as opposed to fresh MBAs or undergrads). For example, if you were a restaurant executive you could probably get hired as a restaurant industry analyst with a healthy pay raise. Knowing the business, being able to talk to clients well and having good forecasts are key in this position. You want to help your firm avoid the dreaded Worst Analysts list. Analysts are often referred to as either quants or fundamentalists. Fundamentalists make recommendations based on what's going on at a company--how's the CEO, what are the earnings etc? In contrast, quants look at computer programs that identify undervaluated securities, markets or even whole countries. There are fewer quant jobs, but they often pay more because the required skills are greater.
International Sales/Emerging Markets
A rapidly growing area is in international sales. Despite the Asia crisis, investor demand for securities issued in emerging markets is strong. Firms are meeting this demand by providing sales personnel and analysts specialized in these markets. Another area of high demand is in emerging markets such as Thailand or Mexico. Firms are looking for people with specific language skills, a willingness to travel and knowledge of these emerging markets. You can often rise very quickly in this area, even if you are quite young. With volatility in emerging market bonds in 1998, be sure to do your research carefully--the Russia crisis has triggered layoffs at a number of firms. A great place to track goings on is through Bloomberg's web site.
Public Finance
The market for municipal bonds is very large and calls for analysts, municipal advisors and traders. Positions in public finance are usually difficult to obtain but offer high rewards. Persons with previous experience in public administration would be attractive to investment banks in this capacity. A major growth area in municipals is in the project finance area. For example, Senior VP of public finance at Tucker Anthony, stated in August 1995 that his area has moved from 15% project finance before to 60% today (Bond Buyer, 8/15/95).
Retail Brokerage (Stockbroker)
Stockbrokers are in the business of selling stocks, bonds, insurance and other investments to individuals. Some brokers specialize in high net worth individuals while others span a variety of clients. This is a tough business to get started in (especially if you are much younger than your clients), but the rewards to a good people person with great sales skills are high. The Securities Industry Association reports that the average retail broker earned $128,553 in 1993. And many brokers earn upwards of $500,000. Try to start with a firm like Merrill Lynch that has a good training program. A good web page to look at if you are interested in being a broker is the Syndicate.
Institutional Sales
In institutional sales you would be responsible for conveying information about particular securities to institutional investors. You would be likely to have heavy contact with portfolio managers and your own firm's analysts and traders. Sales skills and product knowledge are crucial in this area as is the ability to get through to busy institutional investors. Working in sales for an investment bank (on the sell side) is often good preparation to move over to the buy side (insurance companies and mutual funds). Both types of jobs can be brutal and subject you to abuse. A common Wall Street Joke: What's the difference between a sell side and a buy side player? Answer: On the sell side they curse you only after they hang up the telephone. Taking abuse can be lucrative. The average salaries in institutional sales in 1995 exceeded $300,000 according to the Securities Industry Association.
Computer Guru
Some of the best jobs in computers and information systems are on Wall Street. A firm with good trading software, pricing software, or back office software can get a strong competitive advantage. In 1999 the big headhunters and firms on the Street have been scouring the country for people who can develop UNIX-based workstation software and financial mainframe applications. Six figure salaries are not uncommon for really good systems people.
Ratings Analyst:
One way to break into investment banking is to start as a ratings agency analyst. The pay is relatively low and advancement opportunities aren't great, and the investment banks know it and use the agencies as hunting grounds for new analysts. Moody's rates $5 trillion worth of securities and has 560 analysts. Standard and Poors rates $2 trillion worth of securities and has 800 analysts. These agencies are highly profitable and grade the credit quality of companies and sovereign entities accessing the markets. Most revenue comes from issuer fees. There is high demand for persons who can rate structured finance and corporate bonds intelligently. "We are not auditors and we don't use lie detectors, so it's up to our analysts to be smart enough to ask the right questions," says Edward Emmer, executive managing director and head of S&P's corporate ratings department.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)